37mm gold yacht master

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Which Would You Choose? The Rolex Yacht-Master Everose 37mm vs 40mm

The Yacht-Master has been an unashamedly high-end variation on the Submariner theme ever since it launched back in 1992. Only available in the most precious of precious metals, including being the watch to introduce Rolex’s own steel and platinum alloy Rolesium to the world, it has always been aimed squarely at the luxuriously active lifestyle market.

So the release of the two Everose gold, black dial versions in 2015 raised some luxuriously active eyebrows. With nothing quite like it emerging from the Rolex lair before, the 40mm ref. 116655 and its smaller brother, the 37mm ref. 268655 played host to several pioneering features.

They became the first Yacht-Masters to sport matt black dials, a more restrained but still unmistakably masculine element which is echoed across onto the sandblasted bezels; again, the only time Cerachrom has been used in the series.

Housing two different calibers, the Cal. 3135 inside the 40mm version has been a staple of Rolex watches for nearly 30 years, but the 2236 that powers the 37mm is their first movement to contain a silicon composite, or Syloxi, hairspring. Found originally in the ladies Datejust Pearlmaster range, the smaller Yacht-Master became the first men’s watch with the movement.

But it’s the bracelet, the sophisticated black Oysterflex band , which marked the biggest departure from the norm. What could well be mistaken for a simple rubber strap actually keeps completely true to Rolex’s prevailing theory that anything worth engineering is worth over-engineering.

Inside is a thin titanium nickel alloy blade, overmoulded with a hypoallergenic elastomer. The result is a strap as durable as a metal bracelet and supple enough to conform to the natural shape of your wrist. Two longitudinal ridges underneath play the twin roles of cushioning the watch, preventing it from shifting around as you wear it, while also allowing fresh air to circulate between the strap and your skin to provide more comfort on warm days.

Secured with the same rock solid Oysterlock clasp you’d find on the brand’s metal bracelets, Rolex’s first foray into rubber straps is a typically striking one.

Overall, the dramatically different Yacht-Master duo has proved extremely popular. The unorthodox combination of Everose and black gives the watch an aura of coolness it hasn’t had before and has also made its way onto the latest generation of the watch world’s current hottest player, the Cosmograph Daytona.

In fact, there’s just one debating point that remains amongst the brand faithful. The Yacht-Master is the only sports watch in the range to be offered in a choice of sizes.

Let’s take a look at what that distinction means.

37mm versus 40mm

First off, let’s get the financials out of the way. There is understandably a price difference between the two, but it’s hardly what you’d call a gulf and won’t be a factor for the Yacht-Master’s target audience. Those with enough buying power to spend $22,000 on a watch are unlikely to suddenly balk at $25,000.

So the choice comes down to one of aesthetics. On its launch in 1992, the Yacht-Master was actually available in three different sizes—a 29mm ladies version, a mid-size 35mm and the full-scale 40mm. Today, there is no official ladies size, but the new 37mm watch is listed under both the men’s and women’s section on the Rolex website.

The main reason is obviously the current trend for women wearing larger watches, but another factor could be the use of Everose gold. The pinkish quality of the metal sees it blend in slightly with skin tones, making the watch appear smaller than it actually is.

However, out of the Yacht-Master range, the black dial and bezel variants are definitely the least showy, and the 37mm case is also a popular choice for men content to wear a very discreet watch; one that doesn’t need to shout, fits more comfortably under a shirt sleeve and benefits from a lighter overall weight.

As for the 40mm watch, what would have been considered exceptionally large a few decades ago, is now very much an average. With that Everose effect of wearing smaller than the actual size, even men with slender wrists who usually opt for more modest pieces have been deciding to wear the bigger of the two models.

For an added bonus, with the contemporary thinking of bigger equals better, 40mm Yacht-Masters are enjoying a healthier resale value on the pre-owned market, if you decide you want to sell it on at some point down the road.

Conclusion on the Everose Yacht-Master

So, 37mm or 40mm? There is, of course, no right or wrong answer. The only choice is which size is better for you.

Whichever you choose, what you’ll come away with is a very interesting chapter in Rolex’s long running story. The Swiss watchmaking colossus has a history of quietly releasing radically altered variants on some of their most timeless designs. The 116655 and 268655 appeared with very little fanfare and have gone on to become real favorites among the brand’s devotees.

Whether they will go on to become all-time classics, it’s too soon to call. But with just enough subtle nods to Rolex’s illustrious past, such as picking the Yacht-Master name out in red, harking back to the Double Red Sea-Dwellers of the sixties, and combining them with a host of never-before-seen features, I wouldn’t bet against it.

About Paul Altieri

Paul Altieri is a vintage and pre-owned Rolex specialist, entrepreneur, and the founder and CEO of BobsWatches.com. - the largest and most trusted name in luxury watches. He is widely considered a pioneer in the industry for bringing transparency and innovation to a once-considered stagnant industry. His experience spans over 35 years and he has been published in numerous publications including Forbes, The NY Times, WatchPro, and Fortune Magazine. Paul is committed to staying up-to-date with the latest research and developments in the watch industry and e-commerce, and regularly engages with other professionals in the industry. He is a member of the IWJG, the AWCI and a graduate of the GIA. Alongside running the premier retailer of pre-owned Rolex watches, Paul is a prominent Rolex watch collector himself amassing one of the largest private collections of rare timepieces. In an interview with the WSJ lifestyle/fashion editor Christina Binkley, Paul opened his vault to display his extensive collection of vintage Rolex Submariners and Daytonas. Paul Altieri is a trusted and recognized authority in the watch industry with a proven track record of expertise, professionalism, and commitment to excellence.

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Yacht-Master 37

Oyster, 37 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold

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18 ct Everose gold bidirectional rotatable 60-minute graduated with raised numerals

Waterproof to 100 metres / 330 feet

Perpetual, mechanical, self-winding

2236, Manufacture Rolex

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Oyster, flat three-piece links

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Bidirectional Rotatable Bezel

The Yacht-Master's bidirectional rotatable 60-minute graduated bezel is made entirely from precious metals or fitted with a Cerachrom insert in high-tech ceramic. The raised polished numerals and graduations stand out clearly against a matt, sand-blasted background. This functional bezel - which allows the wearer to calculate, for example, the sailing time between two buoys - is also a key component in the model's distinctive visual identity.

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RUSSELL，Leeja Cassandra (Part-time Lecturer) Outline and Purpose of the Course For the continued development of students' skills in English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP), English Writing-Listening B (EWLB) consists of three components: writing, listening, and vocabulary. EWLB aims to advance the skills in EGAP that students learned in EWLA.

For practice with writing, students analyze and evaluate basic elements of academic writing they learned in EWLA; they further identify, recognize, or understand more advanced elements; finally, they recall and apply all acquired knowledge in the process of producing an academic report of at least 1,000 words. By writing substantial academic reports more autonomously, students will acquire advanced academic writing skills as stated in the Course Goal section below.

For practice with listening, students take the online course known as GORILLA (Global Online Resources for International Language Learning Assistance) outside class. They are assessed on their listening proficiency through weekly online assignments, as well as the four tests that the instructor administers in class.

For vocabulary learning, students use the standard reference book titled “Kyoto University Vocabulary Database 1100.” Like the listening component, students independently study words from the general academic list that the instructor assigns (usually 50 words a week) and are tested on a number of these words weekly.
Course Goals By the end of this course, students will acquire the following skills at varying levels. Students should be able to:
- Recognize and use basic academic words in English
- Process more advanced academic discourse presented aurally
- Analyze topics and develop suitable controlling ideas, thesis statements, and outlines for academic reports
- Analyze and evaluate the locations, functions, and features of the standard paragraph-level elements of an academic report (i.e., introduction, body, and conclusion paragraphs) and apply the analysis and evaluation when writing academic reports
- Analyze and evaluate the locations, functions, and features of the standard sentence-level elements (e.g., thesis statement, topic sentences, support sentences) and apply the analysis and evaluation when writing academic reports
- Recognize more advanced methods of maintaining the unity (e.g., repetition of key points) and coherence (e.g., quality of language) of ideas in academic reports, evaluate the unity and coherence of their writing, and apply the analysis and evaluation when writing.
- Utilize, with sufficient accuracy, a broad range of citation conventions when formatting academic reports
- Understand more advanced paraphrasing techniques to integrate information from external sources (e.g., summarizing, quoting), recognize and use more detailed citation conventions, and utilize this knowledge to avoid plagiarism
- Evaluate and integrate supporting evidence and sources to produce an academic report.
- Recognize the formatting conventions of an appropriate reference list and apply this knowledge to generate one for an academic report.
- Recognize particular styles and conventions within academic writing and adopt them appropriately
- Acquire a deeper understanding of the writing process in the production of academic reports after revising drafts with feedback
- Combine knowledge of (i) the structure of an academic report, with allowances made for rhetorical style such as argumentation and cause-effect, (ii) the writing process, and (iii) the evaluation and integration of supporting evidence and sources, and apply this knowledge to produce an academic report of at least 1,000 words Schedule and Contents In-class activities are related to the contents of the textbook. Though there may be some adjustments in certain cases, the schedule of this course is as follows:

Chapter 1 Paragraph Structure Review
Chapter 2 Academic Essay Structure & Topic Selection
Chapter 3 Thesis Statement & Essay Outline
Chapter 4 Body Paragraphs & Transitional Words
Chapter 5 Paraphrase, Quotation, Summary, & Citation
Chapter 6 Introduction & Conclusion Paragraphs
Chapter 7 Proofreading & Revision
Chapter 8 Quality of Thought: Evaluating Topics
Chapter 9 Quality of Thought: Evaluating Thesis Support
Chapter 10 Quality of Content: Evaluating Evidence
Chapter 11 Quality of Language: Integrating Evidence
Chapter 12 Quality of Language: Academic Style
Chapter 13 Quality of Feedback & Revision
Chapter 14 Overall Quality
Feedback

Important: Some instructors may cover more than one chapter in one week for better learning outcomes in the whole semester. Each instructor decides whether or not the class conducts the final examination in the test week. Students should confirm the class policy from their instructors. Evaluation Methods and Policy 1. Vocabulary assessments 10%

2. Listening assessments 20%
*Students must pass at least eight out of 13 learning units (Units 1-12 and TOEFL ITP Sample Test Unit) of the online materials in order to receive credit for this course.
*The score for the listening assessments is determined by performance on four in-class assessments and the study record of the online materials (Units 1-12 and TOEFL ITP Sample Test Unit).

3. Writing assignments 50%
*Scores for writing assignments may include in-class writing tasks and participation in class activities as well as a term paper.
*Students must complete various writing assignments, including an academic report of at least 1,000 words in order to receive credit for this course. Note that plagiarism must be avoided.

4. TOEFL ITP score 20 %
*Students must take the TOEFL ITP before the end of the second semester. Course Requirements Refer to "Handbook of Liberal Arts and General Education Courses". Study outside of Class (preparation and review) Students are required to study academic vocabulary from the designated part (EGAP vocabulary) of the "Kyoto University Vocabulary Database 1110" outside of class, and regularly take vocabulary assessments in class.

Students are also required to study the online listening materials outside of class through the GORILLA system. The materials for this course are as follows:

・KU Academic Listening (B) Units 1-12 (required)
・TOEFL ITP Sample Test Unit (required)
・KU Can-Do Self-Assessment (optional)
・Extra practice for further study (optional)

Students must complete each unit by the assigned deadline. If students miss the deadline for a certain unit, the unit will not be evaluated as a passed unit.
Students must also take four in-class assessments based on the KU Academic Listening (B) units.

For details such as the deadlines and the in-class assessment schedule, please see the handout distributed in class and the information posted on the GORILLA system. Textbooks Textbooks/References EGAP Writing 2: Research Writing_2022 Edition, Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Kyoto University, Students are requested to download the PDF file from the URL.
京大・学術語彙データベース基本英単語１１１０, 京都大学英語学術語彙研究グループ＆研究社, (研究社), ISBN:978-4-327-45221-6

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English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) Writing: Making the case

2016, Writing & Pedagogy

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John Flowerdew

This introductory review article for this special issue sets out a range of issues in play as far as English for Academic Purposes (EAP) writing is concerned, but with a special emphasis on English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) (as opposed to English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP)). Following the introduction, the article begins by outlining the different types of EAP and presenting the pros and cons of ESAP and EGAP for writing. It then goes on to review work in a range of areas of relevance to ESAP writing. These areas are register and discourse analysis; genre analysis; corpus analysis; ethnography; contrastive rhetoric; classroom methodology; critical approaches; and assessment. The article concludes by arguing that whichever model of writing is chosen (EGAP or ESAP), or if a hybrid model is the choice, if at all possible, students need to be exposed to the understandings, language and communicative activities of their target disciplines, with students themselves also contributing to this enterprise.

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This paper proposes a literature-based composition course for advanced Non-native English Speaking (NNES) students in an English for Academic Purpose (EAP) program and provides a rationale, a syllabus, and some suggested pedagogy for consideration. The principal reasons for choosing a literature-based format include the following: (1) extended writing about a text, or texts, should lead to reading comprehension improvement; (2) culturally responsive literature should enhance engagement; (3) reading literature, as writerly reading, will assist NNES students with developing strategies applied to reading-to-write tasks and to integrated writing skills; (4) reading for writing (RFW) will expose NNES students to a wide range of genres, syntactic constructions, discourse structures, and words and word families; (5) RFW should lead to the development of multiple-documents literacy; and (6) contemporary writing models incorporate reading as a component of the composing process, which emphas...

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English for academic purpose (EAP) emerged as a branch of English for specific purposes in the early 1980s. EAP grounds English language teaching in the linguistic demands of academic context, tailoring instruction to specific rather than general purposes. There is a growth of interest in EAP in the recent years. The interest in EAP developed in response to the growing need for intercultural awareness and of English as a lingua franca (ELF). EAP has become a major area of research in applied linguistics and focus of the courses studied worldwide by a large number of students preparing for study in colleges and universities. The increase in students' undertaking tertiary studies in English-speaking countries has led to a steady demand for the courses tailored to meet the immediate, specific vocational and professional needs. Thus, most universities in the present day world prioritize the role of academic skills. The aim of the paper is to examine the key approaches to the teaching of English for academic purposes, current trends in teaching EAP, and to argue the centrality and significance of EAP in the academia. The paper concludes by arguing that a greater emphasis needs to be placed on methodology in EAP.

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This study reviews the current trends of research in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) as a subfield of Applied Linguistics. Through an extensive review of literature and an undertaking process of data collection, 15 books, 6 book chapters, and 347 research articles (RAs) were analyzed for identifying the major issues in EAP. Drawing upon the grounded approach, it was found that Academic Writing, Curriculum Development, and Critical EAP were the most challenging issues in EAP studies. Each of the research themes subsumed important issues such as genre analysis and approaches to teaching academic writing for Academic Writing; discussions on standard variety of English in academic contexts and practice of EAP among local students and teachers for Curriculum Development; and, critical thinking and pragmatism for Critical EAP. These issues and challenges explained in this paper hoped to be helpful for EAP to be matured as a field, and see itself in charge of preparing students to hold new roles both in academic and cultural contexts. However, it is acknowledged that, the concerns and issues are still unresolved and further research is needed for responding to them.

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This portfolio serves as a summary of all I have learned over English for Academic Purposes (EAP), a subject of my Licenciatura degree. I enjoyed so much this learning experience and I really hope you feel it as you go through this collection of my works.

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EGAP Writing 2: Research Writing_2022 Edition

English Writing-Listening Instructors Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences, i-ARRC, Kyoto University Creator
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© Kyoto University, i-ARRC
This material is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license. Anyone is free to share the work for any noncommercial use, as long as they give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made to the original material. Any derivative works may not be distributed.

Description

<Foreword> To Students & Teachers [1]

<Chapter 1> Paragraph Structure Review [3]

<Chapter 2> Academic Essay Structure & Topic Selection [7]

<Chapter 3> Thesis Statement & Essay Outline [16]

<Chapter 4> Body Paragraphs & Transitional Words [22]

<Chapter 5> Paraphrase, Quotation, Summary, & Citation [28]

<Chapter 6> Introduction & Conclusion Paragraphs [34]

<Chapter 7> Proofreading & Revision [42]

<Chapter 8> Quality of Thought: Evaluating Topics [45]

<Chapter 9> Quality of Thought: Evaluating Thesis Support [53]

<Chapter 10> Quality of Content: Evaluating Evidence [61]

<Chapter 11> Quality of Language: Integrating Evidence [67]

<Chapter 12> Quality of Language: Academic Style [77]

<Chapter 13> Quality of Feedback & Revision [85]

<Chapter 14> Overall Quality [92]

<Glossary> Key Vocabulary [118]

Details 詳細情報について

CRID 1510855522144634880
HANDLE 2433/266632
Text Lang en
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DOI: 10.1558/WAP.V8I1.30051
Corpus ID: 64057370
J. Flowerdew
Published 22 February 2016
Education, Linguistics
Writing & Pedagogy

45 Citations

English for academic purposes: keeping up with the times, ealp textbooks and the challenges of legal english education, english language teaching and english-medium instruction, transfer from english for academic purposes to disciplinary modules, english language teaching and emi: putting research into practice, a textual analysis of literature essays written by first year english department students of dhaka university, from efl to emi: developing writing skills for the humanities.

Highly Influenced

English for specific purposes in surging English-medium instruction contexts

Writing a research article, open research online the acquisition and development of academic vocabulary: learners’ perspectives, 111 references, research perspectives on english for academic purposes, genre analysis: english in academic and research settings, genre in three traditions: implications for esl, initiating esl students into the academic discourse community: how far should we go, specificity revisited: how far should we go now, academic writing in a global context: the politics and practices of publishing in english, a classification of genre families in university student writing., genre analysis as a pre-instructional, instructional, and teacher development framework, using genre analysis and corpus linguistics to teach research article writing, technical rhetorical principles and grammatical choice, related papers.

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Leblanc, catherine.

Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences Senior Lecturer/ Junior Associate Professor

Basic Information

Academic degree.

Master’s Degree(Temple University(Japan Campus))

Academic Resume (Graduate Schools)

Temple University(Japan Campus) , Master of Science in Education, 修了

Language of Instruction

J-global id, researchmap url, research topics, overview of the research, research topics, overview of the research, research interests.

internationalization policies, autonomous behavior in language learning, learner identity, gender representation in higher education

Research Areas

Humanities & social sciences , Foreign language education

Presentations

Books and other publications, external funds: others.

JALT Research Grant Award From 01 Jan. 2011 , To 31 Mar. 2012 代表

Teaching subject(s)

From 01 Apr. 2024 , To 31 Mar. 2025 Academic Discussion G303, Fall, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
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From 01 Apr. 2024 , To 31 Mar. 2025 English Writing-Listening A R107, Spring, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2024 , To 31 Mar. 2025 Academic Discussion G303, Spring, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2024 , To 31 Mar. 2025 Academic Discussion(All Faculties, English)-E3 W240, Fall, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2024 , To 31 Mar. 2025 Academic Discussion(All Faculties, English)-E3 W240, Spring, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
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From 01 Apr. 2023 , To 31 Mar. 2024 Seminar Participation (All Faculties, English)-E3 W211, Fall, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2023 , To 31 Mar. 2024 Academic Discussion G303, Fall, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2023 , To 31 Mar. 2024 English Writing-Listening B R108, Fall, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2023 , To 31 Mar. 2024 English Writing-Listening A R107, Spring, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2023 , To 31 Mar. 2024 Academic Discussion G303, Spring, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2022 , To 31 Mar. 2023 Seminar Participation (All Faculties, English)-E3 W211, Fall, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2022 , To 31 Mar. 2023 Academic Discussion G303, Fall, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
From 01 Apr. 2022 , To 31 Mar. 2023 Academic Discussion G303, Spring, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
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From 01 Apr. 2022 , To 31 Mar. 2023 English Writing-Listening B R108, Fall, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, 2
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From Apr. 2018 , To Mar. 2019 Academic Discussion Spring, 全学共通科目
From Apr. 2018 , To Mar. 2019 Academic Discussion Fall, 全学共通科目
From Apr. 2018 , To Mar. 2019 Seminar Participation (All Faculties, English)-E3 Spring, 全学共通科目
From Apr. 2018 , To Mar. 2019 Seminar Participation (All Faculties, English)-E3 Fall, 全学共通科目
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Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .

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Interdisciplinary EAP: Moving Beyond Aporetic English for General Academic Purposes

1.introduction.

The purpose of this short piece, which can be qualified as speculative and provisional, is not primarily to try to enter into the considerable long-standing dichotomous and ideational discussions of the merits and shortcomings of English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) and English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP). Rather, this thought piece documents and reflects on our attempts to reimagine, rethink and move beyond the often rather uninspiring and emaciated tropes that characterise arguments for EGAP.

To achieve this, we initially review some of the most frequent and substantive arguments that dominate EAP with regards to, firstly, ESAP and then EGAP. Particular attention is paid to the largely aporetic nature of arguments for EGAP in order to reimagine EGAP from within an interdisciplinary framework.

We then draw on our experience of developing interdisciplinary presessional EGAP programmes at the universities of Leeds and Nottingham to reflect on the affordances and constraints of adopting a distinctive interdisciplinary framework for EGAP.

Thirdly, and briefly, we consider theoretical and ideological issues, from a largely social realist perspective, around notions of disciplinarity, ‘normal’ vs ‘hyper’ interdisciplinarity, and we question the frequent equivocation of disciplinarity with specificity.

In lieu of a conclusion, we return to aporia - the sense of doubt, puzzlement, impasse and perplexity – that frames much of the discussion of specificity and EGAP and, in the spirit of a thought piece, invite you to contribute to our understanding and development of interdisciplinary ESAP.

2.ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC ACADEMIC PURPOSES

The issue of specificity in EAP and ESP more generally has been a longstanding preoccupation for practitioners and researchers alike that stretches back to at least the 1980s (e.g. Hutchinson and Waters, 1987) and the ‘notion of specificity is at the heart of most definitions of EAP’ (Hyland, 2018: 17). Hyland claims:

The issue of specificity … challenges EAP teachers to take a stance on how they view language and learning, and to examine their courses in light of this stance (Hyland, 2016: 17).

As such, specificity, for all EAP practitioners, is a central concern not just in terms of course design, teaching and rationale but also, equally fundamentally, in terms of practitioner identity, agency and recognition. Two recent review articles (Flowerdew, 2016, and Hyland, 2016) outline the handful of the most persuasive, persistent and frequent arguments for ESAP. Unsurprisingly, their respective review of key arguments overlap considerably and are briefly outlined below.

Perhaps the most persuasive and central argument for ESAP relates to the multifarious differences between disciplines. These differences are seen as so fundamental that they preclude any satisfactory generic approach to teaching EAP. Hyland states that ‘disciplines are largely created and maintained through the distinctive ways in which members jointly construct a view of the world through their discourses’ (Hyland, 2016: 20-21). The notion of community, and specifically communication within a disciplinary community (Hyland, 2006), is central to ESAP. Differences between disciplines provides the basis for justifying ESAP. These differences can be summarised as follows (synthesised from Hyland, 2006):

Disciplinary forms of argument;
Knowledge attribution (from actors in the field, to schools of thought through to non-attributed canonical forms);
Writing style (e.g. relative readability, sentence length, use of sub-technical lexis);
Citation practices;
Rhetorical structure(s);
Stance and voice and,
Writer engagement strategies

This partial picture of differences between disciplines can be further complicated by differences within disciplines where, for example, disciplines display non-cumulative knowledge structures (in Kuhn’s (1970) terms ‘pre-paradigm’ or in Bernstein’s (2000) terms ‘horizontal knowledge structures’) where knowledge is more segmented and such disciplines are typically ‘a series of approaches that develop by adding another approach alongside existing approaches’ (Maton, 2011: 63). In these cases, disciplines (such as sociology) are likely to display some or all of the differences bullet pointed above in part because there may be competing theoretical orientations and commitments (including fundamental differences in ontological and epistemological beliefs, methodologies and methods, ideological orientations…) within the discipline.

It has been argued that both language and literacy are not generalisable across disciplines (Murray, 2016) and, therefore, by focusing on specificity, students are gaining knowledge directly relevant to, for example, the epistemology, genres conventions and language of their discourse community (Anderson, 2014; Wingate, 2018). This is reflected in the philosophical perspective of social constructivism, which argues that communicative practices, more specifically how discipline-specific views of the world are jointly constructed through discourse within communities, both create and maintain these disciplines (Basturkmen, 2003). Understanding of and exposure to this is crucial for students to gain membership of their specific communities of practice and disciplinary communities.

A common argument is that subject lecturers (Flowerdew, 2016; Hyland, 2016; Prior, 1998) lack either or both the expertise and the inclination/time to teach or develop the specific disciplinary literacy skills that their students require. In addition, subject lecturers may also consider academic and disciplinary conventions to be transparent or self-evident. Flowerdew (2016) considers this scenario as an opportunity for EAP practitioners to engage in a useful division of labour with subject lecturers whereby EAP practitioners engage with the writing/language in the discipline and the subject lecturers focus on the content. Flowerdew (2016) claims that the substantial body of ESAP research on disciplinarity can then be integrated into teaching ESAP classes where students can be encultured and socialised into the discursive conventions and practices of their discipline (Swales, 1990). This ESAP approach also enables practitioners to obtain greater professional recognition, improve self-esteem, reach equity with ‘academics’ and engender greater practitioner motivation (Flowerdew, 2016). It requires more qualified practitioners and ‘elevates’ the importance of their work (Hyland, 2016). An additional argument for ESAP is that it has face validity for students and is therefore a source of motivation (Basturkmen, 2003; Flowerdew, 2016; Hyland, 2016).

3.ENGLISH FOR GENERAL ACADEMIC PURPOSES

When compared to ESAP, the discussions of EGAP are generally uninspiring, possibly outdated and occasionally defensive, with the main justifications for EGAP relating to ‘contextual exigencies’ (Hyland, 2016:23) such as financial and logistical barriers to teaching ESAP. Alexander et al. (2008: 26) claim ‘most EAP classes…must be general because they contain a mixture of subject areas’, with literature often citing student numbers, resources and issues with accessing subject specific content as the main reasons for taking an EGAP approach (Flowerdew, 2016).

As with ESAP there is a common core of a handful of arguments for EGAP and, with a few exceptions, most of these arguments are historical and seem less plausible as more research has emerged within ESAP. The first of these arguments, again summarised largely from Flowerdew’s (2016) and Hyland’s (2016) recent reviews of ESAP and EGAP, suggest that there is no need for practitioners to teach the specialised language of the disciplines as these special features will be taught by content lecturers or learned once the students are studying in their respective schools and departments. Instead, practitioners can more usefully focus on those features of language that make up a ‘common core’ across all disciplines (Bloor and Bloor, 1986). Significant at the time, Hutchinson and Waters’ 1987 book also argued strongly for this approach. This approach entails teaching generic features of academic language such as register (e.g. lexical density, nominalisation) and including aspects of language such as metadiscourse and hedging. These ideas about generic features of language have had a prolonged life (perhaps beyond their credibility) in part due to just how amenable these ideas of generic academic language are to publishers of highly lucrative academic study course and text books bought by many students around the world. In addition, a common trope is that students at lower levels are not yet ready for specificity (Hyland, 2002).

Similar to generic features of academic language there is also an argument for identifying skills and study activities (such as note-taking, listening to lectures, paraphrasing) deemed common to all disciplines which can then be operationalised in a range of contexts and disciplines (Hyland, 2016). Again, it is not difficult to envisage the commercial appeal of such arguments.

As disciplinary strangers, it has also been argued (cf. Spack, 1988; Sloan and Porter, 2010) that EAP practitioners have neither the confidence nor the expertise, nor, indeed, the qualifications to deal with the specificity of subject/discipline specific language and content and therefore Spack (1988:29) argues that practitioners should teach ‘general principles of inquiry and rhetoric’. Raimes (1991), in a similar vein, suggests that academic writing should be located within the liberal arts and, by doing so, this would raise the profile and professionalism of the practitioner instead of adopting the ‘butler’s stance’ by being subservient to disciplinary demands and power.

One of the most striking theoretical justifications for EGAP focuses on the differences between education and training, arguing that EGAP is the former, and ESAP the latter (Widdowson, 1983). Education, here, is defined as preparing students for a wide range of needs, and thereby having a wide focus, with training seen as providing students with a ‘restricted competence to deal with defined tasks’, due to focusing solely on specific skills and schemata, thereby having a narrow focus. Huckin (2003) claims that ESAP forecloses creativity and promotes a dull and rigid conformity to convention entailing the reproduction of unimaginative and formulaic texts without preparing students for their less predictable future communicative needs.

Thus far, the arguments above both for EGAP and against ESAP will be very familiar to practitioners and will also perhaps seem rather tired and unhelpful. The few more positive reasons for adopting EGAP are discussed below.

Feak (2011; 2016), an advocate for EGAP who highlights the growing trend towards interdisciplinarity within higher education, justifies EGAP, especially for taught post-graduate students, with the rational that it is the students’, rather than the practitioners’ responsibility to notice, and thereby understand, their disciplinary conventions. Expanding on this, this paper centres on the rationale for EGAP with an interdisciplinary focus, arguing that this approach enables students to gain the benefits from and beyond ESAP, highlighting that perhaps disciplinary identity is further developed through contrasting disciplinary differences, rather than focusing solely on one. A similar argument is made by Swales and Feak (2012) who encourage students to compare their disciplinary experiences through contrasting rhetorical analysis of disciplinary texts.

Bruce (2005) offers a principled approach to developing an EGAP writing course based on a cognitive discourse model operating with the four most commonly recurring rhetorical types; rhetorical focus, gestalt structure, discourse patterning, and principal internal discourse patterning (Bruce, 2005: 244). This approach entails developing an analytical syllabus organised using the non-discipline specific discourse unit of the cognitive (rather than social) genre. Bruce provides a theoretically rigorous and practical approach to develop an EGAP writing programme. However, perhaps due to the prevalence of arguments for ESAP and also possibly due to the fact that understanding and adopting Bruce’s approach requires some effort (compared to most of the arguments above for EGAP) and investment to understand the theory behind this approach, it is unfortunate that this cognitive genre approach to EGAP has not been as influential as it should have been.

An emerging theoretical framework that is beginning to re-orientate ideas about teaching and framing EAP is Legitimation Code Theory (LCT). LCT, rooted in social realism, building on Bernstein’s work and aligning with SFL, is complex, rich and dynamic and focuses on knowledge in terms of its epistemic and social relations:

LCT aims to provide concrete tools to research and to change educational practices by investigating the underlying codes that are at the heart of what is considered ‘legitimate’ in knowledge practices across institutions and disciplines (Monbec, 2018:90).

Work in this area is only just emerging but work by Brooke (2017), Ingold & O’Sullivan (2017), Kirk, (2017/2019) and Monbec (2018) may soon provide enough confidence and evidence to invigorate the reshaping, rethinking and development of what has been to date often rather emaciated arguments for EGAP.

Our final observations on EGAP are also true of ESAP (although probably less damming) and they relate to critical strands within and beyond EAP which perceive EAP practices from a hierarchical and often binary ideological perspective. EGAP does not come out well from these perspectives. Critical approaches to EAP tend to operate with the trope of EAP as ‘taught by unreflective instructors blindly resolved on enforcing orthodoxy’ (Hyland, 2018: 383) in which:

Both academic literacies and Critical EAP invite practitioners to adopt a ‘transformative agenda’ (Lillis & Tuck, 2016:30) rather than the dominant ‘normative’ orientation in EAP (ibid.) and a failure to adopt such an approach implies adopting an ‘accommodationist ideology’ (Benesch, 1993: 711) entailing ‘political quietism’ (Benesch, 2001:41) and fulfilling a colluding ‘technician’ role (Morgan, 2009) working against the best interests of students (Hyland, 2018). (Ding, 2019: npng)

Recently, for example, Jenkins (2016) has labelled ‘general’ EAP courses as ‘Traditional’ with:

[r]esearch and publications at this end of the conforming scale (particularly EAP materials for students) tend to be concerned with standards, to assume and/or focus on idealized native English academic norms, and not to question whether these norms are the most appropriate globally or why they should still be considered in some way better than other possibilities (Jenkins, 2016: 49).

From an ELFA perspective EGAP would suffer criticism for promoting idealised native academic norms. ESAP, through genre and corpus approaches, would be less susceptible to the harshest of these criticisms but would nonetheless be considered a conformist rather than challenging approach to teaching EAP (Jenkins, 2016).

The choice then is not simply between a narrow ESAP or generic EGAP approach to framing and teaching EAP but, more broadly, situating praxis within the critical discourse in and beyond EAP that provokes deeper discussions about the purposes and practices of EAP. These rather binary and absolute options regarding the ideological orientations and theoretical commitments of EAP have, historically, mirrored dichotomous debates over the relative merits of ESAP and EGAP. However, there is a sense now that ESAP and EGAP is less about binary choices and more about situating options and choices on a spectrum (Hyland, 2016): ‘the choice between one or other side [ESAP or EGAP] depend[ing] upon practical circumstances more than ideological positioning’ (Flowerdew, 2016: 8). Hyland, however, although acknowledging that EGAP approaches have some merits they are nonetheless second best:

Essentially, however, these [EGAP] can only bridge the gap between the kinds of language students learn and use at school, which are typically often proﬁciency-focused personal essays, to the speciﬁc demands of disciplinary writing (Hyland, 2018: 391).

4. REFLECTIONS ON AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FOCUS IN AN EGAP PRESESSIONAL PROGRAMME

This section was written by the first author Jenna Bodin-Galvez and is based on her experience of developing and leading a pressessional EGAP course at the University of Leeds. Her observations echo many of the experiences of the second author, Alex Ding, during his time at the University of Nottingham developing a similar course.

Approaching EGAP with an interdisciplinarity focus enables disciplinary content to be addressed with mixed disciplinary groups; with students focusing on the same goals but from different disciplinary perspectives. This approach meets the increasing trend towards interdisciplinarity in universities (Feak 2011), and enables EAP practitioners to facilitate, but not to lead, the students’ understanding of their discipline specific knowledge, thereby addressing the second of the BALEAP (2008) competencies, disciplinary differences, to ‘guide students to investigate the genres and expert practitioners of their specific discourse communities’. In addition, as Hyland (2002) notes, although disciplines view knowledge and the world differently, students are often expected to cross boundaries, for instance when discussing problems and conducting research, and therefore need to develop complex skills to operate in a wide range of social and academic environments. Addressing content in a multi-disciplinary environment enables students to work on interdisciplinary communication, and to begin to understand that, throughout their academic careers, they will encounter diversity.

Through this approach, students are able to develop their disciplinary knowledge - possibly through rhetorical consciousness raising (Hyland 2002) - as in ESAP, which can aid student motivation (Feak 2011), It has been suggested that, through working with students from different disciplinary backgrounds and contrasting how their disciplines function, students may more easily be able to see how their discipline views and constructs knowledge (Hyland 2002; Swales and Feak, 2000), for example by examining the way cognitive genres are constructed across disciplines (Bruce 2008). Therefore, it could be argued, students on a EGAP programme with an interdisciplinary focus can develop a stronger disciplinary identity than through ESAP. As Alexander et al (2008: 26) note;

EAP is principally an endeavour in which students acquire the generic tools to research the language and culture of their academic discourse community for themselves and this can be achieved in mixed or subject specific groups (Alexander et al., 2008: 26).

The Academic English for Postgraduate Studies (AEPS) Level Three presessional course at the University of Leeds follows such a model. This ten-week course runs three times each academic year, to three different cohorts of students with a minimum English language proficiency entry level of IELTS 5.5. It centres around a different ambiguous and abstract theme each term, for example ‘risk’ or ‘time’. Students address the theme in relation to their discipline, writing a paper, presenting at a conference and participating in a seminar. For example, with risk, students addressed the question ‘What role does risk play in your discipline?’ in both the paper and at the conference, based on their interpretation of the question and their readings. Following the conference, students then conducted a seminar in which they discussed how attending presentations in a range of disciplines at the conference developed their perspectives and understanding of ‘risk’. Throughout the term, students work towards these goals, developing their academic language and literacy in their discipline, whilst also developing their interdisciplinary knowledge.

This approach entails a number of the benefits of ESAP and gives the course face validity (Hughes 2003). For instance, students are developing both their disciplinary knowledge and identity, starting to gain membership to their particular communities of practice and are writing in appropriate cognitive and social genres (Bruce 2008) developing their disciplinary language and literacy. However, due to the interdisciplinary element, there are additional benefits, including enabling a mixed-disciplinary group to be focused on the same goals, while approaching these from different angles, and students beginning to gain a greater understanding of their own discipline, through a comparison with others. This also allows them, as mentioned above, to analyse how knowledge is constructed, for instance whether it is empirical and objective, or explicitly interpretive (Kirk 2015), and to understand how language is used in their discipline when compared to others; thereby developing a stronger academic identity. It also aids students in their development as independent learners, such as developing the ability to mine texts for appropriate discourse and language features, and to find their own sources, rather than these being provided, which is often the case in ESAP.

The course at Leeds has been successful, as evidenced in the report from the external examiner, who commented that ‘students in this level have the opportunity to really engage with language, literature and ideas in their particular discipline which offers the best preparation for their academic future’, and feedback from students, with 98% of students agreeing, in the most recent feedback, that the programme prepared them for post-graduate study, including comments such as ‘the course is so beneficial on our Master’s degree’ and ‘It is good to think deeply about my discipline’. However, although overall the course has generally been a success, there are still a number of challenges.

The first is that this approach, unlike ESAP, relies on students having disciplinary knowledge, which is not always the case. Those that do not have a solid base in their discipline often find the course overly challenging, leading to them focusing on trying to pass, rather than focusing on the learning process. Moreover, it does not always match with students’ expectations, with them regarding a presessional course as a ‘language course’, rather than one that aims to help students to develop both academically and linguistically. This often leads to students not fully understanding the benefits until on their Master’s programmes, with feedback at the end of term, such as ‘I think teachers should remember we are pre-sessional students, not Master’s students’, developing into ‘The course developed my academic skills….many students have a misconception about such a programme to only help their general English’ when on their Master’s programmes. However, the biggest challenge is that this approach can lead to an anti-scientific bias, as the genre of their main writing task is an essay, when, as Gardner et al (2018) note, in physical sciences, the majority of assignments are reports. In addition, practitioners are drawing on their previous writing experience when guiding students, which is often humanities based. It, therefore, relies on the students having a good understanding of scientific writing, or being prepared to challenge the writing expectations and ‘norms’ in the EAP classroom.

5.IN LIEU OF A CONCLUSION : DISCIPLINES, INTERDISCIPLINARITY, HYPER-DISCIPLINARITY, SPECIFICITY, AND APORETIC EGAP.

Neither of us would suggest that the EGAP course described above resolves the perennial issues of ESAP or EGAP and, in a number of key ways, we acknowledge that much could still be developed and refined on this course. However, experience of teaching and developing this interdisciplinary approach to presessional EGAP has made us think much harder about; interdisciplinarity, disciplines and specificity. This thinking has taken us beyond the EAP literature and into the realms of social realism and the sociology of knowledge. Our first set of observations are based on a chapter by Moore (2011).

Rhetorically speaking, interdisciplinarity has often been accompanied by hyperbolic ‘rhetorical inflation’ (Moore, 2011: 90) whereby interdisciplinarity is associated with progressive political positions serving the disadvantaged and marginalised and can be neatly contrasted with elitist, conservative, reactionary disciplinarity serving the interests of the dominant class/group. Moore labels this form of discursive interdisciplinarity ‘hyper-interdisciplinarity’. In addition, this discursive position claims that disciplines are arbitrary, historical, social constructions without any special or defining epistemological status. We would also argue that there are neoliberal variations on hyper-interdisciplinarity whereby the rhetoric of interdisciplinarity is a useful tool to reconfigure disciplines (and courses) into profitable commodities that can be sold to students and render the university more attractive to research funders through, for example, the trope of interdisciplinarity as a key means to solve (profitably) ‘real-world problems’.

However, whether from a neoliberal or progressive perspective, this hyper-interdisciplinarity can be contrasted with routine, mundane interdisciplinarity. Abbot (2001) states that ‘the emphasis on interdisciplinarity emerged contemporaneously with, not after, the disciplines’ (Abbot, 2001: 132) and he suggests this emerged in the US in the 1920s. Interdisciplinarity is, then, routine, normal and an everyday feature of academic life and interdisciplinarity did not follow from disciplinarity but grew alongside. There is, in short, nothing special about interdisciplinarity.

Moore goes on to make three very interesting distinctions as to how disciplines can be understood which provide a much more nuanced understanding than is often the case in EAP. Firstly, disciplines can be distinguished by their ontologies and methodologies. Secondly, by how disciplines are located around the university. And thirdly, how disciplines are organised professionally through, for example, associations, conferences, papers and people.

The last point we would like to draw from Moore (2011) concerns the purpose(s) of interdisciplinarity. Moore, posits that the ‘problem’ defines the nature of interdisciplinarity. It might be case that disciplines are brought together to solve a problem and then disperse. This is not interdisciplinarity rather a temporary configuration of parts of disciplines. It is ad hoc and unlikely to have a permanent impact on the disciplines. Disciplines, however, need problems to continue and develop; they are integral to its stability, identity and continuation.

What does all the above have to do with ESAP or EGAP? Firstly, it suggests that EAP does not fully consider the routine and mundane nature of much of interdisciplinarity. Specificity especially as it tends to be equated/elided/confused with disciplinarity seems to produce terminology and approaches to framing ESAP (and EGAP) whereby the interdisciplinary lives and needs of students risk being occulted and neglected. Specificity (for students) may often not be located within but among the disciplines. Boundary crossing (Feak, 2016; Hyland, 2016) and the ‘rhetorically complicated life’ (Hyland, 2016: 23) of interdisciplinary studies are acknowledged occasionally but little significant pedagogic attention has been devoted to this. This observation points to a way forward moving beyond the rather aporetic history of EGAP with tropes of novice practitioners enacting emaciated study skills courses and unable to envisage EGAP as anything other than limited in effectiveness and scope and always second best to ESAP.

If we take the views here on interdisciplinarity seriously then we can begin to think of EGAP pedagogy and syllabi differently. It also, and finally, suggests that a vital component of an interdisciplinary EGAP programme must make visible the social dimensions of knowledge production. Students need to be aware of and consider the issues raised in this section, for example: to understand that knowledge can be framed through rhetorical hyperbole and ideological positioning, forms and iterations of interdisciplinarity may exist primarily to generate profit, and that interdisciplinarity may in some cases be quite ephemeral. Ultimately, students are members of and participants in the university not only apprentices being socialised into the disciplinary or interdisciplinary practices of their respective programmes and departments, and, as such, considerations of interdisciplinarity, as conceived here, enable conversations and perspectives to emerge as to the purpose and values of universities.

Address for correspondence: [email protected]

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Lillis, T. and Tuck, J. 2016. Academic Literacies: a Critical Lens on Writing and Reading in the Academy. In Hyland, K. and Shaw, P. eds. The Routledge Handbook of English for Academic Purposes. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 30–43.

Maton, K. 2011. Theories and Things: The Semantics of Disciplinarity. In Christie, F. and Maton, K. eds. Disciplinarity: Functional Linguistics and Sociological Perspectives . London: Bloomsbury, pp. 62-86.

Moore, R. 2011. Making the Break: Disciplines and Interdisciplinarity. In Christie, F. and Maton, K. eds. Disciplinarity: Functional Linguistics and Sociological Perspectives . London: Bloomsbury, pp. 87-105.

Monbec, L. 2018. Designing an EAP Curriculum for Transfer: A Focus on Knowledge. Journal of Academic Language & Learning , 12(2), pp. 88-101.

Morgan, B. 2009. Fostering Transformative Practitioners for Critical EAP: Possibilities and Challenges. Journal of English for Academic Purposes , 8, pp, 86–99.

Murray, N. 2016. An Academic Literacies Argument for Decentralizing EAP Provision. ELT Journal 70(4), pp. 435-443.

Prior, P. 1998. Writing/Disciplinarity: a Sociohistoric Account of Literate Activity in the Academy . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Raimes, A. 1991. Instructional Balance: From Theories to Practices in the Teaching of Writing. In Alatis, J. ed . Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics . Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, pp. 236-245.

Sloan, D. and Porter, E. 2010. Changing International Students’ and Business Staff Perceptions of in-Sessional EAP: Using the CEM model. Journal of English for Academic Purposes , 9, pp. 198-210.

Spack, R. (1988). Initiating ESL Students into the Academic Discourse Community: How Far Should We Go? TESOL Quarterly , 22 (1), pp. 29–52.

Swales, J., and Feak, C. 2000. English in Today’s Research World: a Writing Guide . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Widdowson, H.G. 1983. Learning Purpose and Language Use . Oxford: Oxford University Press

Wingate, U. 2018. Academic Literacy Across the Curriculum: Towards a Collaborative Instructional Approach. Lang Teach . 51(3), pp.349-364.

英語教育の哲学的探究3

　このブログの主目的は、(1)英語教育について根本的に考え直すこと、(2)英語教育現場の豊かな知恵をできるだけ言語化すること、です。このブログでの見解などは柳瀬個人のものであり、必ずしも柳瀬が所属する組織や団体などのものではありません。ブログ管理での技術的理由から「英語教育の哲学的探究2」よりこのブログに移行しました。　なお私が所属する京都大学・国際高等教育院・附属国際学術言語教育センター・英語教育部門のウェブサイトでは、学生さんの自律的な英語学習・使用を支援するための情報を多く提供しています。https://www.i-arrc.k.kyoto-u.ac.jp/english_jp

日本語(L1)から英語(L2)に機械翻訳されたアカデミックエッセイにおけるエラーの分類 --京都大学EGAPライティングクラスで得られた具体的な結果と一般的な示唆--：英語翻訳の2次出版付き

先日の「 LET関東支部研究大会講演スライド公開　『機械翻訳が問い直す知性・言語・言語教育 ―サイボーグ・言語ゲーム・複言語主義―』」の記事に YouTube解説動画をつけました。

この度、以下の実践報告が京都大学学術情報リポジトリに掲載されましたので、お知らせします。とはいえ、この実践報告に書いていないことを含めると、AIを巡る事情ははるかに進展し、この実践を行った2019年度後期の日々がはるか昔に思えるほどです。もちろん授業はセメスター毎に少しずつ変更していますが、技術進歩の速度が社会の変化可能な速度を超えたのではないかと思わされるぐらいです。仮に個々人が技術の変化になんとかついていったとしても、社会や組織全体が変わるスピードは技術進展の速度になかなかついてゆけません。

従来どおりの（英語）教育を続けること、あるいはそれに表面だけの微修正を加えて改革をしたと主張することは容易ですが、それがこれからの時代を生きる若い世代のための最善の教育であるとは私はなかなか思えません。

とはいえ、AIは機械翻訳以外にもますます進展しているわけですから、次の世代への指針を定めることも容易ではありません。そういうわけで下の報告も、出版したこの3月時点で、もはやAIを使った大学英語ライティング教育の最新の事情を伝えるものにはなっていませんが、今はこれ以上のことができないのでここでも公開する次第です。

なお、機械翻訳のおかげで翻訳作業が非常に楽になったので、この実践報告は日本語話者にも英語話者にも読んでもらえるように日英両語で出版させていただきました。掲載誌の『国際高等教育院紀要』は次の第6号から投稿規定を変えて正式にこういった二次出版 (secondary publication：ある論文・報告を別言語に翻訳して出版すること）を認める方向で今動いています。紀要関係者の皆様のご理解に厚く御礼申し上げます。

柳瀬陽介、リーズ・デイヴィド (Yosuke Yanase & David Lees)

<実践報告>日本語(L1)から英語(L2)に機械翻訳されたアカデミックエッセイにおけるエラーの分類 --京都大学EGAPライティングクラスで得られた具体的な結果と一般的な示唆--

<Survey and Practical Report>Categorizing Errors in Machine-translated Academic Essays from Japanese (L1) to English (L2): Some Specific Findings and General Implications from Kyoto University EGAP Writing Classes

この実践報告は、本学のEGAP(English for General Academic Purposes)カリキュラムにおけるケーススタディの結果を伝える。本稿のデータは、1回生対象の英語ライティング-リスニングの2クラス(後期後半)において受講生が宿題で書いた日本語(L1)アカデミックエッセイを機械翻訳ツールに入力して得た英語(L2)翻訳である。学生はその後の授業において英語翻訳を批判的に読解した後で改訂することを求められた。だが改訂前の機械翻訳データについては、2名の英語母語話者英語講師と2名の日本語母語話者英語講師が評価したところ、語法面において翻訳の不備が確認された。本報告では日英翻訳における機械翻訳の典型的なエラーを分類した。さらに、機械翻訳を利用する際の暫定的なガイドラインとそこからの示唆を提示した。機械翻訳は常に適応・進化し精度を向上させているが、機械翻訳を万能薬や「魔法の杖」のように誤解・誤用してはならない。EGAPライティングの授業で機械翻訳を導入するのであれば、機械翻訳の翻訳結果を改善するために人間の介入が必須であることを学習者も教員も自覚する必要がある。

This practical report presents the results of a case study at Kyoto University in the English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) curriculum. The data was derived from two first-year English Writing-Listening classes where students used Machine Translation (MT) tools for translating Japanese (L1) academic essays that they produced in one assignment into English (L2). This procedure took place during the second semester through the last half of the course. After obtaining MT output, students were instructed to revise it after reading it critically. Assessments of the MT output by two native English instructors and two Japanese instructors confirmed that usage of the output was, in some cases, not adequately translated by MT. This report presents a categorization of typical errors of MT, thereby suggesting a preliminary guideline for using MT. The report also discusses some general implications on the use of MT in academic English writing. Although MT is constantly adapting and evolving for improved accuracy, this report suggests that MT should not be mistaken or misused as a panacea or “magic wand” for translation.

掲載誌：『京都大学国際高等教育院紀要』第5巻 59-79

DOI : 10.14989/ILAS_5_59

URL : https://doi.org/10.14989/ILAS_5_59

ガート・ビースタ（著）、田中智志・小玉重夫（監訳） (2021)『教育の美しい危うさ』東京大学出版会／Gert Biesta (2013) The Beautiful Risk of Education. Routledge

　以下は、ガート・ビースタ（著）、田中智志・小玉重夫（監訳） (2021)『教育の美しい危うさ』東京大学出版会／Gert Biesta (2013) The Beautiful Risk of Education . Routledgeを読んで作成した私のお勉強ノートです。...

egap writing 1 academic essays_2022 edition

無料のGPT-3.5のChatGPTで大学入試レベルの英作文を自学自習するためのプロンプト ■　効果このプロンプトを使うことによって、ユーザーは自分が書いた英語を、ChatGPTに自動的に（文法・スペリングなどを）添削してもらい、（文体面で）改訂してもらうことができます。改訂のレベルは日本の大学入試で求められるレベルに近いものにしています(下の「注意」を参照)。 ...

高校生用ChatGPT/Bing英作文自動添削・改訂プロンプト追記（2023/06/24）大学受験レベルの英作文でしたら、無料のGPT-3.5版ChatGPTで作動するプロンプトを作りました。ただしChatGPTからの出力はすべて英語です。無料のGPT-3.5のChatGPTで大学入試レベルの英作文を自学自習するためのプロンプト ht...

Test Resources

TOEFL® Resources by Michael Goodine

Toefl® writing practice questions (2024 update), about these toefl ® writing samples, toefl integrated writing practice.

The first TOEFL writing question is the Integrated Writing Task.

You will first read an article, then listen to a lecture, and finally write an essay using details from both. Your essay should be about 280 words. You will have 20 minutes to write.

Below are some practice questions you can use to get ready for the test.

Complete Sample Questions and Responses!

These practice questions all include a reading and lecture. They closely resemble the real TOEFL Test.

Colonizing Asteroids
Protecting Peregrine Falcons
Paradox of Choice
The Phoenicians
Bronze Age Collapse
Quick Decline Syndrome
Living on the Moon
Machu Picchu
REM Sleep (new)
The Cave of the Hands (new)
Volcanic Building Materials (new)
Moai of Easter Island (really old)

Writing for an Academic Discussion Questions

The second TOEFL writing question is the “Writing for an Academic Discussion” task. This looks like a question was posted to a university discussion group.

You will read a question posted by a professor, and then read two responses posted by students. Your job is to read everything and then answer the question. You should write about 120 words. You will have 10 minutes to do everything.

Each link below includes a complete sample question and two possible responses.

Targeted Advertising
Social Media
Grading Students
Taxing Unhealthy Products
University Spending
Economic Growth vs the Environment
City Spending
Corporate Impact
Work From Home
Online Classes
Smart Phones
Learning Styles
Influencers
Starting a Business
Space Exploration
Looking for the free sample questions from ETS? They are no longer available, but there are usually some questions in the new TOEFL Test Ready page from ETS .

More Integrated Essays

These essays are all based on questions from famous books.

Television Appearances by University Professors (ETS Official)
Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet (ETS Official)
Incan Fortress of Sacsayhuaman (casting doubt)
Iron Fertilization (solution and problem)
Humpback Whales (casting doubt)
Going to Mars (Problem and Solution)
The Usefulness of Coal (casting doubt)
Monarch Butterflies (casting doubt)
Large Animals (casting doubt)
Wheat and Beer (from Princeton Review)
Forest Fires (from Princeton Review)
Endotherms (from “ETS Official Collection”)
Online Encyclopedias (from “ETS Official Collection”)
Buying a Franchise (from “ETS Official Collection”)
Great Houses (from “ETS Official Collection”)
Smart Cars (from “ETS Official Collection”)
Eco-Friendly Wood (from ETS Website)
The Chevalier (from “TOEFL Sample Test”)
Wave Farms (from “Hackers Actual Test”)
The Anasazi (from “Hackers Actual Test”)
Trans Lunar Phenomena (from “Hackers Actual Test”)
Four-day Workweek

TOEFL Writing Guides and Templates

Complete templates for both writing questions .
A detailed master guide to the integrated essay task .
A detailed master guide to the academic discussion task .

( get a free evaluation in the comments )

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EGAP_Writing_1_2022_Edition.pdf: 2.21 MB: Adobe PDF: 見る/開く: タイトル: EGAP Writing 1: Academic Essays_2022 Edition: 著者: English Writing-Listening Instructors Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences, i-ARRC, Kyoto University ... <Chapter 1> Introduction to Academic Writing [3] <Chapter 2> Paragraphs & Topic Sentences [6]

EGAP Writing 1: Academic Essays by Kyoto University, i-ARRC is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license. Anyone is free to share the work for any non-commercial use, as long as they give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made to the original material.

Appendix 1: Essay Parts - Location, Function, and Features. Appendix 2: Transitional Words and Phrases. Appendix 3: Academic Sentences - Simple to Complex. Appendix 4: APA Format for Reference List and In-text Citations. Appendix 5: Documenting Sources in IEEE Style. Appendix 6: Recommended Romanization of Syllables.

For the development of students' skills in English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP), English Writing-Listening A (EWLA) consists of three components: writing, listening, and vocabulary. ... EGAP Writing 1: Academic Essays_2022 Edition, Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Kyoto University, Students are requested to download the PDF file ...

1997; Kubota & Lehner, 2004; Savage, 2022), as well as preconceptions regarding citation conven-tions (Kamimura, 2014; Teeter, 2015). Research in this area suggests that a combination of focused ... (EGAP Writing 1: Academic Essays; EGAP Writing 2: Research Writing) were submitted for review to the English Standing Committee in May 2020.

For the continued development of students' skills in English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP), English Writing-Listening B (EWLB) consists of three components: writing, listening, and vocabulary. EWLB aims to advance the skills in EGAP that students learned in EWLA. For practice with writing, students analyze and evaluate basic elements of ...

OA. EGAP Writing 1: Academic Essays_2022 Edition. 著者. English Writing-Listening Instructors Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences i-ARRC Kyoto University. 出版者. English Writing-Listening Instructors Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences, i-ARRC, Kyoto University. 巻号頁・発行日.

A third argument in favour of EGAP writing is that EGAP may focus on a set of common skills which are needed across all disciplines - notetaking, paraphrasing, plagiarism-avoidance skills, citation, etc. - rather 12 WrItING & PEdAGOGy than discipline-specific language and skills.

EGAP Writing 2: Research Writing_2022 Edition. ... 2022-02 公開者 English Writing-Listening Instructors Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences, i-ARRC, Kyoto University ... <Chapter 2> Academic Essay Structure & Topic Selection [7] <Chapter 3> Thesis Statement & Essay Outline [16] <Chapter 4> Body Paragraphs & Transitional Words [22] ...

English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) Writing: Making the case. J. Flowerdew. Published 22 February 2016. Education, Linguistics. Writing & Pedagogy. TLDR. It is argued that whichever model of writing is chosen (EGAP or ESAP), or if a hybrid model is the choice, if at all possible, students need to be exposed to the understandings ...

Teacher's guide for EGAP writing 1: Academic essays. Tim Stewart; Catherine LeBlanc. Kyoto University, International Academic Research and Resource Center for Language Education., 2022. ... 2022, Refereed. External funds: others. JALT Research Grant Award. From 01 Jan. 2011, To 31 Mar. 2012.

Introduction to EGAP Resources All Resources Methods Guides Registry ... 10 Things to Know About Writing Academic Papers in LaTeX Author: Luke Olson & Jake Bowers. Subscribe. Be the first to hear about EGAP's featured projects, events, and opportunities. Full Name. Email. Send. Metaketa Initiative EGAP Meetings & Policy Events

This dichotomy is often described as the distinction between argumentative writing for general academic purposes (i.e., generic, field-invariant conventions that can be applied to argumentative writing across disciplines) and argumentative writing for specific academic purposes (i.e., field-dependent elements of argument that can contribute to ...

The vital role of academic writing in turn highlights two aspects vital for successful written production in university contexts: familiarity with the different text types (i.e. genres) as ...

The general structure of an academic essay is similar to any other academic work, such as a presentation or a lecture. It too has an introduction, a main body, and a conclusion. The general structure of an academic essay is shown in the diagram below. Each area is discussed in more detail in other sections of the website.

1.INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this short piece, which can be qualified as speculative and provisional, is not primarily to try to enter into the considerable long-standing dichotomous and ideational discussions of the merits and shortcomings of English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) and English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP).Rather, this thought piece documents and reflects on ...

この実践報告は、本学のEGAP(English for General Academic Purposes)カリキュラムにおけるケーススタディの結果を伝える。本稿のデータは、1回生対象の英語ライティング-リスニングの2クラス(後期後半)において受講生が宿題で書いた日本語(L1)アカデミックエッセイ ...

View HIST 1500 - First Writing Assignment .pdf from HIST 1500Y at Trent University. HISTORY 1500H, FIRST ESSAY SECONDARY SOURCE ANALYSIS Reading academic articles and books critically is a. AI Chat with PDF. Expert Help. Study Resources.

The second TOEFL writing question is the "Writing for an Academic Discussion" task. This looks like a question was posted to a university discussion group. You will read a question posted by a professor, and then read two responses posted by students. Your job is to read everything and then answer the question. You should write about 120 words.

EGAP_Writing_1_2023 Edition.pdf: 2.4 MB: Adobe PDF: 見る/開く: タイトル: EGAP Writing 1: Academic Essays_2023 Edition: 著者: English Writing-Listening Instructors Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences, i-ARRC, Kyoto University ... <Chapter 1> Introduction to Academic Writing [3] <Chapter 2> Paragraphs & Topic Sentences [6]

<Chapter 1> Introduction to Academic Writing [3] en: dc.description.tableofcontents <Chapter 2> Paragraphs & Topic Sentences [6] en: dc.description.tableofcontents <Chapter 3> Supporting Sentences [12] en: dc.description.tableofcontents <Chapter 4> Paragraph Writing [17] en: dc.description.tableofcontents <Chapter 5> The Writing Process [21] en

Write an introduction paragraph, body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. Type your essay and use proper formatting (include: your name, student number, a title, double-spacing, indented paragraphs, page numbers, etc.) Step 5: Get feedback on your writing.

This volume follows up on the essay writing foundations laid in EGAP Writing 1: Academic Essays. Chapters 1 to 7 of this book maintain a structure-based approach to academic writing with a focus on the location, function, and features of the primary elements of essays. The focus on structural components

Jenny Walton, an illustrator, wore the Miu Miu mini to Paris Fashion Week in 2022, writing on Instagram: "When I see a shocking shift in proportion, it makes me feel excited." Credit ...

topics for creative writing for class 6

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Yacht-Master 37. Oyster, 37 mm, Oystersteel and platinum. Reference 268622. View in night mode. ... Many Rolex watches are available with the now-legendary combination of yellow, white or Everose gold and steel known as Rolesor, but Rolesium is a creation specific to the Yacht-Master.
Rolex Yacht-Master 37 in Everose Rolesor, M268621-0003
Yacht-Master 37. Oyster, 37 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold. m268621-0003. Model availability . Reference. 268621. Model Case. Oyster, 37 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold. Bezel. 18 ct Everose gold bidirectional rotatable 60-minute graduated with raised numerals. Water Resistance. Waterproof to 100 metres / 330 feet. Movement.
Rolex Yacht-Master 37 18ct Everose Gold
The Yacht-Master collection is known for its sporty yet sophisticated design, making it the perfect timepiece for any occasion. Don't miss your chance to own this pre-loved Rolex Yacht-Master 37 18ct Everose Gold - Ref 268655, a masterpiece from the most prestigious watch brand in the world.
rolex yacht master 37mm rose gold review
Rolex Yacht-Master 37: The Ultimate Review. The Rolex Yacht-Master 37 , a testament to Rolex's maritime heritage, combines elegance and functionality in a compact form. This ult
rolex yacht master 37 everose gold
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Rolex Yacht-Master
Precious on land and at sea. Available in three diameters - 37, 40 and 42 mm - and in various precious versions - 18 ct yellow, white and Everose gold - as well as in Everose Rolesor and Rolesium versions, the Yacht-Master is unique in the world of Rolex professional watches.
MINT Rolex Yacht-Master 18k Rose Gold Oysterflex Rubber Black 37mm
MINT Rolex Yacht-Master 18k Rose Gold Oysterflex Rubber Black 37mm 268655 Watch. CollectorsWatches Massapequa NY (7988) 99.5% positive; Seller's other items Seller's other items; Contact seller; ... Rolex Yacht-Master Gold Case Wristwatches, Rolex Yacht-Master Luxury Wristwatches, Rolex Yacht Master 226659,
ladies rolex yacht master 37mm
Ladies' Rolex Yacht-Master Buying Guide. The Rolex Yacht-Master has gained significant acclaim, attracting individuals who value a blend of sophistication, utility, and longevit
rolex yacht master rose gold 37mm price
Celebrate Class of 2024. Rolex Yacht-Master Rose Gold. Yacht-Master; $ 29,995 Buy; Get Quote Sell; $ 26,295 Buy; $ 25,995 Buy; $ 23,495 Buy; Cash wire prices shown. Prices may be
Rolex Yacht-Master Rose gold
37mm Rose Gold - Black Dial - Oysterflex Strap (268655) $ 26,250. Free shipping. US. Worry-Free Watch Purchases. Chrono24 Buyer Protection Has You Covered. More information. ... PAPERS Rolex Yacht-Master 18K ROSE GOLD Oysterflex 40mm Watch 116655 BOX $ 24,993 + $175 for shipping. US. Popular.
Rolex Yacht-Master
Yacht-Master 37. Oyster, 37 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold. Yacht-Master 40. Oyster, 40 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold. Reset
Rolex PAPERS Rolex Yacht-Master CHOCOLATE 40mm 18K Rose Gold ...
Rolex Yacht-Master 40 Inserat: 12.897 € Rolex PAPERS Rolex Yacht-Master CHOCOLATE 40mm 18K Rose Gold..., Referenznummer 116621; Roségold; Automatik; Zustand Sehr gut; Uhr mit Original-Box; Standort: U. ... PAPERS Rolex Yacht-Master 37mm Two-Tone 18K Rose Gold BLACK Watch 268621 BOX.

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ガート・ビースタ（著）、田中智志・小玉重夫（監訳） (2021)『教育の美しい危うさ』東京大学出版会／Gert Biesta (2013) The Beautiful Risk of Education. Routledge